Definition, Whiteness, aims, impacts, critical race theory, social work practice, leaders and anti-racist practice.
Three sections follow:
Background Material that provides the context for the topic
Suggestions for Anti-Racist Social Work Practice
A list of Supporting Material / References
Feedback welcome!
Background Material
The Emergence of Racism
The Western worldview has a strong tradition of colonialism and its associated racism. One of the important aspects of the Enlightenment was the belief in progress: that we are engaged in an unfolding adventure of human discovery and development, where we are constantly improving on what has gone before. This idea of inevitable progress is ingrained in modern Western thinking but has not always been the dominant worldview or construction of human activity. In other cultures, and at other times, the idea of necessary progress has not been as strongly embraced.
The Enlightenment led to a feeling of superiority over those who were not so ‘enlightened’ and it was a natural step for the West to assume the role of bringing this ‘enlightenment’ to the ‘less enlightened’—this became the intellectual justification for the colonial domination of ‘less civilised’ nations. This served the ends of economic exploitation and provided a strong justification for the 19th century economic oppression of colonised peoples.
Racism is a natural consequence of such a worldview—others are seen as less than fully human and exploiting them (extracting resources) or rescuing them (in Christian missionary work) can be justified. There remains to this day an unspoken racism on the part of people in the West. Western expertise is seen as the solver of the world’s problems even though it was this same expertise that caused many of the problems. It is not surprising that non-Western nations have and are challenging this (Ife, 2012).
The (Re)-Emergence of Anti-Racism
Within societies, anti-racism emerged as societies became multi-ethnic where multiculturalism emerged as a new policy paradigm. Multiculturalism was premised upon the recognition of cultural diversity within a conceptual framework wherein tolerance was promoted as the primary social virtue. The promotion of tolerance requires that there be something to tolerate, and it assumes that one person has the dominant position which allows him or her to demonstrate a generous forbearance towards someone who is intrinsically objectionable and not deserving of the privilege being allowed. Anti-racism arose in response to this paternalistic approach to other people. Anti-racism seeks to expose the bases of power in society, and the processes which reproduce inequalities (Husband, 2002).
In recent years there has been a shift from anti-racist to anti-oppressive practice within social work, a shift pursued as a means of avoiding the creating of a hierarchy of oppressions. This has led to language such as race/racism/anti-racism being embedded in the language of diversity, multiculturalism, cross-cultural, sensitivity, and discrimination. Anti-racist practice was subsumed into anti-oppressive practice. The ‘Black lives matter’ movement has criticized this trend to include anti-racism in the broader concept of anti-oppressive practice. Anti-racism has re-emerged as a distinct area of social work practice (Ladhani & Sitter, 2020).
Definition
Racism refers to any form of discrimination, prejudice or bias based on race or ethnicity (Truong et al., 2023). ‘Anti-racism’ is a belief that all races and ethnic groups are equal and deserving of the same opportunities. Anti-racism involves the active dismantling of systems, privileges, and everyday practices that reinforce and normalize the contemporary dimensions of white dominance (Kendi, as cited in Reid, 2021). This dismantling occurs through movements, practices, knowledge, and thoughts that attend to privilege and relations of power. Awareness of anti-racism without action is insufficient to be considered anti-racist, as an active commitment to interrupting systems of racism is required (Ladhani & Sitter, 2020).
Critical White Studies (CWS)
To be anti-racist, one should have a critical understanding of the history of ‘whiteness’ (Kendi, as cited in Reid, 2021).
Before any meaningful change can be achieved, social work educators and employers must acknowledge the inherent and intrinsic nature of ‘whiteness’, ‘White fragility’, ‘White privilege’ and ‘white supremacy’ as an unconscious bias in most (if not all) institutions, structures and organisational cultures. This awareness is an imperative first step for social workers, social work employers and social work educators to address racism effectively (Reid, 2021)
CWS considers whiteness as a hidden condition of White people that needs to be revealed and resisted. This approach sees the primary method to dismantle racism is at the individual level, helping White persons to understand the effects of white privilege and the imperative of overcoming whiteness as a condition.
Whiteness is viewed as a socially constructed identity assigned by European explorers and settlers when they came into contact with other ethnic groups, specifically the Africans and the Indigenous inhabitants of the Americas. Whiteness was constructed by Europeans and ascribed positive superior attributes that eventually were extended to contrast to the negative attributes assigned to Black people. Unlike Black/Brown, Indigenous, People of Colour (BIPOC), most White people do not have an active consciousness of their racial identity. As the norm, Whiteness is not noticed; BIOPC are noticed and are constantly conscious of their racial identity.
A central premise of CWS is that until White supremacy is abolished racism will continue. Just as racism is systemic, embedded in our institutions and perpetuated by individual racists acts, and maintained by society’s acceptance that this is just the way it is, whiteness is systemic, embedded in our institutions and maintained by society’s acceptance that this is just the way it is. White supremacy is an attitude, a belief that whiteness is the norm, is the status quo, is the preferred state of being. Laws, policies, cultural norms all serve to maintain this way of life. Dismantling racism means dismantling whiteness requiring intentional, active, efforts of both White people and BIPOC (Hanna et al., 2021).
Aims of Anti-Racism
Having rejected racism as personal pathology, anti-racism must address the structural determination of racism in society. Anti-racism aims to change social structures as much as it aspires to produce non-racist practitioners. Indeed, the latter would inevitably be only a tactical intervention since the structural reproduction of oppression and racism is fundamentally seen as the issue. Thus, anti-racism is a political practice informed by an understanding of racial oppressions; driven by a commitment to the values of justice and equality rather than of toleration and paternalistic concern. The existence of such international instruments as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights and the Declaration against Racism and Xenophobia provide an apparently universalistic framework for grounding anti-racist practice (Husband, 2002).
Impacts of Racism
Racism, in combination with other forms of oppression, has led to differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society for BIPOC. In addition, negative assumptions about the abilities, motives, and intentions of BIPOC have fostered the justification of differential treatment towards people of colour (Williams, 2008). Truong et al. (2023) suggest racism has a number of negative impacts:
Racism towards a family member affects everyone in the family, regardless of their age, gender, socioeconomic circumstances, education level or their geographic location. It can affect family cohesion, family functioning as well as trigger other family members as they recall their past experiences.
Institutional racism can result in families being less likely to engage with services.
BIOPC experience racism differently. Some react with external behaviours—anger, aggression, defiance, resulting in trouble with family or the law. Rather than being supported, people who experience racism can become the problem with racism left in the background.
Research suggests that cumulative experience of racial discrimination over time have many detrimental impacts on physical and mental health. Among adolescents, for example, it impacts on social and emotional development, impacts on behaviour and mental health related outcomes, such as sleep difficulties, substance misuse and suicide related behaviours.
Racism can have flow-on effects, one of them being hypervigilant about anticipating that the racist experiences are going to happen again. That may cause people to alter their behaviour, such as not participating in sporting activities or going to certain public places. Adverse experiences in childhood have can result in complex trauma in adulthood.
People can internalise racism and become ashamed of their identify and, as a way of protecting themselves, try to distance themselves from their culture.
Internalised racism
Internalized racism is defined as the acceptance and incorporation by members within an oppressed racialized group of negative messages and prejudices about their own abilities and intrinsic worth within the dominant society. Internalized racism serves as a powerful phenomenon that keeps people of colour feeling powerless in a system that does not value them or their contributions. Internalized racism leads to low self-esteem, self-hate, the disowning of one’s group, and other complex behaviors that influence and impair quality of life at the personal, community and institutional levels (Williams, 2008).
Institutional racism
Most people can identify examples of individual racism—they tend to be overt, e.g. someone on the street using a racial slur, an inappropriate meme being circulated on social media or a white gunman shooting parishioners of a Black church. Institutional racism, on the other hand, may not be as obvious. Also known as structural racism, institutional racism can be defined as the perpetuation of inequality in institutions throughout our society, including schools, the court system and financial establishments. This “built-in” racism can affect entire racial groups. A common example of institutional racism is a form of financial discrimination that denies of home mortgages to otherwise creditworthy borrowers because of their race or where they are looking to buy a house. Another example can be seen in criminal justice systems in various countries where people of colour are arrested and imprisoned at higher rates than the general population (Social Work License Map, 2021).
Critical Race Theory (CRT)
CRT seeks to transform the relationship among race, racism and power, akin to the approach of radical feminism. It highlights the way racism can be invisibly present and permeate our society.
CRT and social work are compatible in that both aim to promote social and racial justice through the dismantling of structural racism. The tenets of CRT, listed below, provide a critical framework or lens social workers can use to shine a light on race and racism that underlies societal structures and institutions (Hanna et al., 2021).
Racism is endemic to society and an ordinary part of the everyday life of Black/Brown, Indigenous, People of Colour (BIPOC). Racism ranges from microaggressions to macroaggressions. Macroaggressions are gross, dramatic and obvious such as murders and lynching. Microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults to the target person or group. These subtle blows are delivered incessantly, including through reporting of macroaggressions on social media, mainstream media or by word of mouth.
Race is a social construct, defined by society and maintained by its social structures. CRT holds that while there may be physical characteristics passed down genetically, race is a very real construct with ascribed meaning constructed by society and codified by law.
Whiteness as property refers to the idea that whiteness has value to those who possess it and comes with a set of benefits and privileges.
Differential racism refers to the ways the dominant culture racializes different non-dominant racial groups at different times depending on the needs of the dominant society. Slavery is an example, as are debates over immigration and deportation.
Racism often involves generalising attributes that may apply to some members of a group to the whole group. These essential attributes are often grounded in stereotypes and societal myths about the population.
People of non-dominant racial groups – BIPOC – are in the best position to speak to experiences related to race and racism, more so than their white counterparts. The unique voices of colour can often cast doubt on the validity of the accepted premises or myths held by the dominant or majority culture.
Interest convergence maintain that racial equality will be accommodated only when it converges with the interests of whites. This concept is most understood through examining more closely the context in which significant gains in civil rights for BIPOC were made.
The liberal ideal of racial equality should be challenged. All groups should not be treated equally. BIPOC require to be treated in a spirit of racial equity, i.e. providing them with equal opportunities to succeed, with an ‘even playing field’. This will only occur through structural change that corrects the historical injustices of White people towards BIPOC. While ever White supremacy exists, racial equity will not occur (Hanna et al., 2021).
Social Workers and Racism
Social work is a profession that claims to be rooted in social justice and anti-oppressive practice. The time has come for social work educators to acknowledge the endemic nature of racism and shift the focus from a broader anti-oppressive umbrella to an intentional anti-racist framework that centres anti-BIPOC racism through the lens of Critical Race Theory and Critical White Studies. Whiteness and the needs of white people should not be prioritised at the expense of BIPOC. Anti-racist social workers:
Espouse to the idea that all racial groups are equal, none is superior or inferior to the other, or needing to be developed.
Acknowledge and accept that there are cultural differences among racial groups, rejecting efforts to equalize these differences and create cultural standards that result in a cultural hierarchy.
Support policies that reduce racial and ethnic inequity.
Work to defeat colourism and antiracist policies that produce inequity between lighter and darker skinned people.
Work to defeat policies that result in racial inequities for those with intersecting identities (i.e., gender, sexual orientation, gender expression, religion, class etc.) (Hanna et al., 2021).
Cultural competence is an essential quality of practitioners who are responding to racism. Practitioners need to be able to effectively engage with people and families who have, or are likely to experience, racism. Workers need to find ways of developing sufficient cultural knowledge to facilitate healing, growth and change.
Respect is important as is active listening. This needs to be coupled with self-reflection—an awareness of one’s world views, an appreciation that the social worker’s experiences can be different to the minorities that are likely to experience racism. Self-reflection challenges previously held views and biases (Truong, 2023).
Anti-racist practices can be integrated into daily practices at micro-, mezzo- and macro-levels.
Micro Anti-Racist Practices Social workers have the opportunity to confront their own internalized racial bias toward others by self-reflecting on racial incidents they have experienced, considering their personal history, power, and position, and by identifying opportunities for change.
Mezzo Anti-Racist Practices Mezzo social work involves working with neighbourhoods, institutions or other smaller groups such as the staff of schools, hospitals, community centres and prisons. Anti-racist work in these settings might involve identifying unjust norms and working to address them as a group.
Macro Anti-Racist Practices Macro social work focuses on the big picture and the prevention of societal problems. It encompasses practices like social work research, community-based education and social justice initiatives, policy analysis and advocacy, and nonprofit administration and leadership. Macro-level social work involves using influence and privilege to dismantle racist practices and policies (Social Work License Map, 2021).
Social Work Leaderships and Anti-Racist Practice
After pointing out that everyone has a duty to combat racism in the spaces they occupy (i.e. BAME social workers should not be the ones to ‘fix’ racism), Reid (2020) suggests organisations respond to racial inequality in three ways:
1. Keep silent, keep things the same and hope all this “Black Lives Matter stuff” just blows over.
2. Publish lukewarm organisational statements that recycle and regurgitate previous rhetoric on workforce unity with predictable (and borderline offensive) platitudes.
3. Publish an authentic anti-racism action plan—an example follows
Patel (2020) and Reid (2021) suggests a number of practical things those in leadership can do to combat racism and support black, Asian and minority ethic (BAME) people in their workplace:
1. Anti-racism is explicitly promoted in mission/position statements.
2. Reach out personally to BAME people with individual emails or direct messages.
3. Enable ‘reverse mentoring’ where BAME workers mentor senior leaders and educators on racism.
4. Promote allyship—ways in which managers and staff can become better allies to support their BAME colleagues.
5. Recognise good work from a BAME colleague; go out of your way to give them credit and promote them to others.
6. Have zero tolerance for bullying, microaggressions and any form of racism.
7. Have a one-to-one chat every three to six months with everyone to ask how they are doing, how their workload is and whether they are facing any bullying, etc.
8. Ensure the HR department has an anonymous way for employees to ask questions, raise concerns about racism, bullying etc. and get good support.
9. Ensure people in HR are diverse & trained to provide support about racism and bullying etc.
10. Provide a space/network for people from BAME backgrounds.
11. Ensure the BAME network is headed and led by someone from the BAME community, and the person is voted in by the network.
12. Ask HR to mandate anti-racism training that is developed and led by someone from a BAME background.
13. Review recruitment process to reach and attract BAME candidates.
14. Ensure various professional development opportunities are available to BAME workers designed to enhance career progression.
Suggestions for Anti-Racist Social Work Practice
Anti-racist practitioners challenge racist views, attitudes and behaviours in a methodical manner and maintain a focus on laws and policies.
Becoming ‘White aware’ at individual and organisational levels is an imperative first step for social workers, social work employers and social work educators if they are to address racism effectively. Whiteness is a hidden condition of White people that needs to be revealed and resisted. White supremacy is an attitude, a belief that whiteness is the norm, is the status quo, is the preferred state of being. White people are ascribed positive superior attributes while Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) people are ascribed negative attributes. Laws, policies, cultural norms all serve to maintain this way of life. Whiteness is the central issue of racism and, until the White supremacy thinking is abolished, racism will exist (Ife, 2012; Reid, 2021).
Moving beyond White supremacy thinking is not sufficient for the non-racist social worker. The anti-racist social worker must intervene in and prevent the structural reproduction of oppression through committing to the values of justice and equity rather than tolerating paternalistic thinking and practices. The international rights documents—the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights and the Declaration against Racism and Xenophobia—provide a universal framework for anti-racist practice (Husband, 2002).
Instances of individual racism tend to be overt and can be dealt with. Institutional or structural racism tends to be ‘built-in’ and not obvious. Anti-racist social workers should name and challenge this form of racism (Social Work License Map, 2021).
The anti-racist social worker will be aware of the negative impacts of racism outlined above and will support BAME people as they work through these impacts (Truong et al, 2023).
The anti-racist social worker will use the tenets of critical race theory to shine a light on racism in our society.
Point out that racism at micro-, mezzo- and macro-levels is an ordinary part of everyday life for BAME people. Be curious, compassionate, and courageous enough to recognize, call out, and address racist and oppressive acts in real time.
Highlight the concept of ‘Whiteness’, the benefits and value it brings to those who possess it, and the damaging impact on those who do not possess it.
Challenge the way society generalises attributes of some BAME people to the whole group. Identify these attributes as stereotypes and societal myths about the population.
Recognise and respect that people within the same racial group will have unique perspectives on the same experience, e.g. around class, gender, ability and sexual orientation.
Highlight that people of BAME groups are in the best position to cast doubt on the validity of the accepted premises or myths held by the dominant culture, more so than their white counterparts.
Point out the injustice of ‘interest convergence’. i.e. the idea that the interest of minority races in achieving racial equity will be accommodated only when it converges with the interest of whites.
Highlight the need for racial equity, not racial equality. Racial equality justifies accepting the status quo. All racial groups are treated equally, regardless of their circumstances. Racial equity acknowledges the unequal playing field of BAME people and addresses this in a targeted and effective way through structural change to correct historical imbalances. Racial equity seeks equal opportunity for BAME groups (based on Hanna et al., 2021).
Cultural competence is an essential quality of practitioners who are responding to racism. Practitioners need to be able to effectively engage with people and families who have, or are likely to experience, racism. Workers need to find ways of developing sufficient cultural knowledge to facilitate healing, growth and change (Quinn, 2009).
Respect, active listening and critical self-reflection are central to anti-racist social work. Critical self-reflection leads to lifelong learning through developing an awareness of one’s world views, an appreciation that the social worker’s experiences can be different to the minorities that are likely to experience racism. Sefl-reflection challenges previously held views and biases (Truong, 2023).
Anti-racist social work integrates anti-racism practices in daily practice at micro-, mezzo- and macro-levels, i.e. at a personal/individual level, at the neighbourhood, institutional and other groups level, and at a whole of society level through research, community education, social justice initiatives, policy analysis, and advocacy (Social Work License Map, 2021).
Recently Peart (2024) suggested a number of practical ways social workers can put anti-racism into practice.
Understand your own biases
We all have biases. Without addressing our own biases, we’re at risk of unintentionally bringing those into our work. Here's two things we can do:
1. Reflect and acknowledge: Take the time to look at your own beliefs and assumptions. Are there certain stereotypes you’ve internalised? Do you find yourself making snap judgments based on someone’s appearance or background?
2. Challenge your assumptions: Ask yourself why you’re making certain assumptions.
Educate yourself
To be an anti-racist social worker, you’ve got to know what racism looks like, both the obvious and the subtle. It’s about recognising how structural racism impacts your clients’ lives in countless, often invisible ways. You can do this by:
1. Reading widely
2. Learning about systemic racism: Racism is built into our systems within education, healthcare, housing, and policing.
Listen to your clients’ experiences
When clients open up about their experiences with racism, don’t brush it off, and definitely don’t play it down. Be there to listen, believe them, and support them. You can help by:
1. Creating a safe space: Encourage clients to share their experiences. Make it clear that your space is a judgement-free zone, where they can speak openly without fear of dismissal.
2. Believing them: Believe your clients when they tell you about racism. Validate their feelings, and let them know they’re heard.
Advocate and challenge racism within systems
Being an anti-racist social worker is also about taking a stand within the systems we operate in too. Challenge ingrained biases You can help bring about change by:
1. Speaking up: If you see racism in your workplace or in a service you’re dealing with, call it out. This might mean challenging a colleague, questioning policies, or pushing for change.
2. Pushing for policy change: Advocate for policies and practices that promote equity and inclusivity. Raise your voice for funding, resources, and changes that will benefit these communities.
Be an ally, not a saviour
Anti-racism is about supporting people to access their own power and rights, and removing the barriers that hold them back. Here are two key points to bear in mind:
1. Empower, don’t overpower: Focus on helping clients access resources, build skills, and find their own voices.
2. Centre the client’s needs: Ask your clients what they need, what they want, and how they’d like to be supported.
Reflect and grow continuously
Anti-racism is not about getting it “perfect” but being committed to doing better every day. Maintain your efforts by:
1. Seeking feedback: We can all learn from others’ perspectives and grow from constructive criticism.
2. Staying humble and open: Recognise that you’ll make mistakes, and that’s okay. Acknowledge them, learn from them, and keep moving forward.
Supporting Material / References
Resources
There is a wide range of anti-racism resources available to social workers, students and anyone committed to being anti-racist. This list is not exhaustive, but it’s a starting point for social workers interested in anti-racism work (Social Work License Map, 2021).
Organizations Working on Racial Justice
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is “committed to ending racism through public education, social justice advocacy and professional training,” as stated on its Racial Equity page, which offers resources to assist social workers in their anti-racist efforts.
The Council on Social Work Education Center for Diversity and Social & Economic Justice offers anti-racism education resources for social workers including books, curriculum resources and interviews with experts.
The mission of the Social Work Coalition for Anti-Racist Educators (SWCAREs) is to dismantle white supremacy in social work education. Their website offers resources for educators and social work students.
The nonprofit American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) works “in courts, legislatures and communities to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties that the Constitution and laws of the United States guarantee everyone in this country.” The ACLU has been at the center of many major civil liberties battles in the country for more than 100 years.
Black Lives Matter was founded in 2013 in response to the acquittal of Trayvon Martin’s murderer. The mission of this global organization is “to eradicate white supremacy and build local power to intervene in violence inflicted on Black communities by the state and vigilantes.”
Anti-Racism Podcasts
“Code Switch” is an NPR podcast discussing how race affects every part of society.
“Seeing White” is a 14-episode Scene on Radio podcast exploring the history of race and white supremacy in America.
“Pod Save the People” is hosted by organizer and activist DeRay McKesson, who explores news, culture, social justice and politics with analysis from fellow activists and experts.
“About Race” with Reni Eddo-Lodge features key voices from the last few decades of anti-racist activism and the recent history that led to our current politics.
“Pod for the Cause” aims to help spark conversation and activism on some of the most critical issues of our time, including criminal justice and voting rights.
Looking for more than just podcasts? SWCAREs: Social Work So White with Rachel Cargle is a webinar that discusses white supremacy in academia, the role of white womanhood in oppression and how white saviorism harms the clients of social work practitioners.
Anti-Racism Books
“How to Be an Antiracist” by Ibram X. Kendi
“White Fragility” by Robin DiAngelo
“So You Want To Talk About Race” by Ijeoma Oluo
“The New Jim Crow” by Michelle Alexander
“Stamped: Racism, Antiracism, and You” by Jason Reynolds and Ibram X. Kendi
“Between the World and Me” by Ta-Nehisi Coates
“Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents” by Isabel Wilkerson
“Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America” by Eduardo Bonilla-Silva
“Two-Faced Racism: Whites in the Backstage and Frontstage” by Leslie Picca and Joe Feagin
“How To Be Less Stupid About Race: On Racism, White Supremacy and the Racial Divide” by Crystal Fleming
References
Hanna, M. D., Arnold-Renicker, H., Garza, B. (2021). Abolishing whiteness: Preparing MSW social work student for anti-racist practice. Advances in Social Work, 21(2/3), 588-615. doi: 10.18060/24484
Husband. C. (2002). The morally active practitioner and the ethics of anti-racist social work. In R. Hugman & D. Smith (Eds.), Ethical issues in social work (pp. 84-103). Routledge. https://gacbe.ac.in/images/E%20books/Ethical%20issues%20in%20social%20work.pdf
Ife, J. (2012). Human rights and social work: Towards rights-based practice (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Ladhani, S., & Sitter, K. C. (2020). The revival of anti-racism: Considerations for social work education. Critical Social Work, 21(1), 55-65. https://doi.org/10.22329/csw.v21i1.6222
Patel, S. (2020). White senior leaders: 12 practical things you can do this week to create a supportive culture for your Black/NAME colleagues. https://salmapatel.co.uk/healthy-teams/white-senior-leaders-practical-things-to-create-supportive-culture-for-black-bame-colleagues/#google_vignette
Peart, V. (2024 Oct 30). How to be an anti-racist social worker. Social Work News. https://www.mysocialworknews.com/article/how-to-be-an-anti-racist-social-worker
Reid, W. (2020, July 17). How to promote an anti-racist culture in social work. Workforce. https://www.communitycare.co.uk/2020/07/17/promote-anti-racist-culture-social-work/
Reid, W. (2021). Anti-racism in social work. https://niromp.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/basw-anti-racism-in-social-work-full-presentation-2021-niromp.pdf
Quinn, M. (2009). Towards anti-racist and culturally affirming practices. In J. Allan, L. Briskman, & B Pease (Eds.), Critical social work: Theories and practices for a social just world (pp. 91-104). Allen & Unwin.
Social Work License Map. (2021). Practicing anti-racism in social work: A guide. https://socialworklicensemap.com/social-work-resources/anti-racism-guide/
Truong, M., Ngwabi, J., Gao, W., & Kemperan, A. (2023). Supporting culturally and linguistically diverse children and families who experience racism. Emerging Minds, webinar. https://aifs.gov.au/webinars/supporting-culturally-and-linguistically-diverse-children-and-families-who-experience
Williams, K. U. (2008). Exploring internalized racism: A critical review of the literature and implications for clinical social work. Smith College, Northampton, MA. https://scholarworks.smith.edu/theses/1302
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